Vocational Education in New Zealand

Historical Perspective

Over 100 years ago recognition was given to the fact that New Zealanders needed more than the theory of academia, as provided by the University of New Zealand, they also needed the practicality of technical training and education.  From this era came the revised Manual and Technical Institution Act of 1900, providing the opportunity to plant the roots of polytechnic and institute of technology vocational training in New Zealand.

Overview of the New Zealand Education System

 An overview of New Zealand (or Aotearoa, the Maori name for New Zealand – meaning land of the long white cloud) is situated in the South Pacific Ocean 2,000 kilometres South-East of Australia.  It has a total land area of 269,000 square kilometres (3/4 the size of Japan).  The capital is Wellington and the largest city is Auckland.  The population is 4 million, with 4/5 of European ethnicity, 1 in 7 Maori (the tangata whenua or indigenous people), 1 in 15 Asian and 1 in 16 of Pacific Island origin.  New Zealand is an increasingly multicultural society.

Introduction

Education is increasingly international in character driven by trends which include the Information Communications Technology revolution, employment markets transcending national borders and a geographically mobile population of students, teaching staff and researchers.

In this fast-changing environment, policy-makers, teachers, students and employers in all countries need access to relevant and up-to-date information about each other’s education and qualification systems.

Central Agencies and Providers – A Devolved System

New Zealand education has moved from a centralised structure to one in which individual schools and tertiary institutions have considerable responsibility for their own governance and management, working within the framework of guidelines, requirements and funding arrangements set by central government and administered through its agencies.

The Ministry of Education, established under the Education Act 1989 carries out the following function:

·          Provides education policy advice to the Minister of Education and the Government;

·          Allocates funding to schools and early childhood providers;

·          Oversees the implemtation of approved education policies;

·          Collects and processes education statistics and information;

·          Monitors the effectiveness of the education supplier as a whole.

Separate education agencies have national responsibilities for qualifications and quality assurance.

Administrative authority for most education service provision is devolved away from central government to the educational institutions which are governed (in the public sector) by individual boards (schools) or councils (ITP’s), members of which are elected or appointed.

The Tertiary Education Commissions’ (TEC) key role is to oversee the implementation of the Tertiary Education strategy and associated set of priorities.

TEC takes an active role in facilitating collaboration and cooperation in the tertiary education system and a greater system connectedness to wider New Zealand businesses, communities, iwi (tribes) and enterprises is emerging.

It is also responsible for funding all post-compulsory education and training offered by universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, wananga (public tertiary institutions that provide programmes with an emphasis on Maori tradition and customs), private training establishments, foundation education agencies, industry training organisations and adult and community education providers.

Education in New Zealand

The New Zealand Education System is based on several guiding principles including; culturally appropriate early childhood services; primary and secondary education that is free for New Zealand citizens and permanent residents, equitable and affordable access to tertiary education and quality assured and portable education qualifications.

The provision of flexible pathways for study is also an important feature – for example students are not streamed or channelled through particular types of school from which future study options are determined.

Although there is diversity in the forms of institutions through which education is provided, national policies and quality assurance provide continuity and consistency across the system.

Early Childhood Education

A wide range of services is provided which care for young children and infants from birth to 6 years of age.

Primary and Secondary School Education

Schooling is available to children from age 5 and is compulsory from ages 6 to 16.  In 2004 average teacher student classroom ratios ranged from 1:19 to 1:24.

The New Zealand School year usually runs from the end of January to mid-December and is divided into 4 terms.  Both single sex and co-educational schooling options are available and state (public) schools are secular. 

Most schools are English language medium, but some schools teach in the Maori medium.

Tertiary Education

The term ‘tertiary education’ in New Zealand is used to describe all aspects of post-school education and training.   There are currently 36 public tertiary education institutions, including 8 universities, 21 ITPs and 4 colleges of education, three wananga (Maori tertiary education institutions).  There are also 46 industry training organisations and approximately 895 private training establishments which include private English language schools registered by the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.

Tertiary education providers meet the needs of learners of all ages, ethnicities, abilities and educational backgrounds.  They offer courses at widely different levels from transition programmes to post graduate study and research.  There are no fixed divisions between the types of courses offered by each classification of provider.  The key focus is on their ability to offer programmes to the required quality standards, rather than on their organisation type.

Technical and Vocational Education is mainly offered at institutes of technology, polytechnics, private training establishments and in the workplace.  However, some programmes are also available in secondary schools, wananga government establishments, one college of education and several universities.

Vocational Education can be delivered through a variety of ‘delivery practices’.

ITP’s may develop their own Certificates or Diplomas and deliver these either purely “off job” through theory “classroom” delivery and “workshop” learning.  Or a mixture of cadetship placement whereby an industry group agree to provide “on-job” learning and experiential activities in line with the curriculum document for specific periods of time, eg 6 month placements.  These apprentices are paid which reduces the financial impact of apprenticeship training on the student.

The other main option, encouraged by Government and by legislative decree is through the Industry Training Organisations of which there are over 46.  Agricultural ITO, Plumbing & Gas ITO, Electrical Supply ITO, Building Construction ITO and Motor Industry ITO.

These ITO’s are bodies that represent particular industry sectors.  ITO’s develop and maintain national unit (skill) standards and qualifications for their sector.  They also facilitate “on-job” training and courses.  Workplace assessors are employed to confirm competence in the apprentices “on-job” work skills and under-pinning knowledge.  The employer also has obligations to be the workplace assessor as well.

How Qualifications are Maintained in New Zealand

Within New Zealand education formal qualifications are offered from Year 11 (age 15) in the school system and from certificate to doctorate level in the tertiary system.

Vocational Education is mainly represented in the Certificate level i.e. National Certificate in Electrical Supply, although there is now a growing trend to offer Diploma level qualifications in recognition of the increasingly complex nature of industry trade workers.  Technical competence rather than purely hand-skills is becoming an increasing part of the ‘job’ and hence industry is requesting a greater depth of technical competence in its employees.  Diplomas in Engineering – Mechanical and Civil are leading the way.

The Built Environment – architectural draughting, and quantity surveying are also demanding of this higher level of understanding and learning.

New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) maintains an overview of qualifications in school and tertiary education and training.  NZQA has developed the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (the ‘Register’) established to provide a means to clearly identify all quality assured qualifications in New Zealand.  The Register has ten levels and is composed of qualifications that are registered in accordance with an agreed set of title definitions.  It provides a comprehensive list of all quality assured qualifications and benchmarking of New Zealand qualifications by describing what Level they are at on the Register. The Register is available on the internet at www.NZQA.govt.nz.

Quality Assurance of Tertiary Education

Quality Assurance of tertiary education in New Zealand focuses on the quality of teaching outcomes recognised through qualifications as a whole, and also on the systems and processes that support quality deliveries by providers.

Only those tertiary qualifications and providers that are quality assured by a quality approval body are eligible for Government financial assistance.  Quality assurance bodies decide whether providers and qualification developers meet appropriate standards.

NZQA also accredits industry training organisations to register workplace assessors.

A New Zealand Quality assured qualification is according to the NZQA web-site:

Ø       a formally recognised award for educational or training attainment, where formal recognition means that the qualification is approved by a legislatively approved body.  For vocational training this body is the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.

In general, a qualification is defined as requiring full-time equivalent study of three months or greater (40 credits).  Study time is an estimate of the typical time it takes a learner to achieve the learning outcomes of the qualification.  This includes direct contact time with teachers as trainers, as well as time spent in self study, assignments and assessments.

All qualifications – school and post-school qualifications must be assigned to one of the 10 levels of the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (New Zealand Register).

Classification Criteria

The Register criteria set minimum credit and level requirements for each type of qualification.  It is possible for a qualification to include credit achieved at levels above and below the level of which the qualification is awarded.

Level 1  to   4  Certificate level

Level 5 to 6      Diploma – Graduate Certificate

Level 7    Degrees – Bachelor

Level 8    Postgraduate Diplomas, Bachelor (Hons)

Level 9               Masters Degrees

Level 10   Doctorate Degree.

Vocational Education in New Zealand involves Certificates and diplomas

Pre-Trade Training Level 1 to 2

Certificates                Level 3 and Level 4

Diplomas                  Level 5 and Level 6

Vocational Education in New Zealand refers to:

The New Zealand Standard of Classification of Occupations 1999 refers to a Major Group – Trades Workers.

This major group classifies those occupations in which the main tasks include the construction and finishing of buildings, the repairing and servicing of electrical, electronic and mechanical machinery, the making or precision instruments, painting and other trades work.

Each major group contains sub-groups:

e.g. 

Building Trades workers includes:

·          Building frame and related trades workers

·          Bricklayers

·          Stone masons

·          Carpenter and/or joiner

·          Builder (including contractor)

·          Boat Builder

Related to this group is the Building Finishers and related trades workers:

·          Plasterers

·          Glazier

·          Plumber

·          Gas Fitter

·          Painter, Decorator and/or Paperhanger

·          Spray painter

·          Sign writer.

A further sub-group is Electrician:

·          Electricians

·          Transport Electrician

·          Appliance Electrician.

The second Major Group under Trades is Metal and Machinery Trades workers:

·          Metal Mould Maker

·          Coach Builder

·          Sheet Metal Worker

·          Boiler Maker

·          Fitter & Welder

·          Panel Beater.

A further sub-group relates to Blacksmith and Toolmakers:

·          Blacksmith

·          Pattern Maker

·          Tool and/or Die Maker

·          Fitter and Turner

·          Saw Doctor

·          Machinery Mechanic

·          Motor Mechanic

·          Aircraft Engine Mechanic

·          Heating Ventilation and Refrigeration Mechanic

·          Small Engine Mechanic

·          Mechanical Products Inspector and Tester.

Another sub-group relates to Electrical and Electronic Instrument Mechanics and Fitters:

·          Electrical Fitter

·          Fire Alarm Technician

·          Electronics Service

·          Avionics Mechanic

·          Radio and Television Repairer.

Sub-group Precision Instrument Makers and Related Workers:

·          Industrial Precision Instrument Maker and Repairer

The Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec) under its School of Trades, Construction and Engineering offers a wide range of the above training, as well as horticulture, agriculture, floristry, hospitality and catering, health and beauty and hairdressing.

The main pedagogical method of Vocational Education in New Zealand is Competency-Based Education and Training.

Competency based training was made popular (Kirka 1998) in the US in the 70s through the performance based vocational teacher education involvement. The National Vocational Qualification NVQs system in England and Wales (1986) and the New Zealand National Qualifications Framework are examples of nationwide adoption of competency based standards.  In New Zealand the adoption of competency based standards as a means of assessment were advanced by a strong political impetus.  This competency assessment approach is believed to be the way to prepare a workforce to participate successfully in a competitive global economy.

Competency Based Education Training is seen as a way to improve the relationship between education/training and workplace requirements.  It is individualised emphasises outcomes (i.e. what individuals can and can’t do) and allows flexible pathways for achieving the outcomes.  It is designed to make it as clear as possible what is required to be achieved and what standard is to be used to measure achievement i.e. competence.  The student is assessed as competent or not yet competent rather than the behaviouralistic method of achievement of pass or fail.  Chappell (1996) champions this method as he sees it as overcoming the divide between hands and minds, between theory and practice,  and vocational and general education.

Does a Competency Based Education Training for Vocational Education give Employers what they want?

In order for Competency Based standards to meet the curriculum requirements of industry depends on the credibility the standards have for industry.  Thus it is imperative for their acceptability that they do represent the industry requirements.  In New Zealand the answer to this has been the establishment of Industry Training Organisations ITOs who are in fact the standards-setting bodies and should be employer led.

Competency Based Education Training whilst adopted in New Zealand and fast becoming the accepted method for assessment has both its proponents and its opponents.  Proponents claim that Competency Based Education Training allows for a learning society where education is an empowering tool for economic independence.  Opponents (Ecclestone 1997) claim that knowledge is too narrowly defined in terms of employer needs, and rather than being a framework, the competency steps are merely a prescription through which educational funding is channelled, by which tutors are benchmarked and assessed, and it ultimately decides how workers progression and pay are determined.  (Hodkinson and Issit 1995; MulCathy 1996).

However, for the New Zealand situation Competency Based Education Training clearly assists vocational education in that it allows for a mixture of “on-job” training coupled with practical standard based assessment and “off-job” theoretical education undertaken to reinforce or explain the required theoretical knowledge necessary for students/apprentices, through which they can engage in an increasingly and technological, global workplace.

Workplace Learning and Vocational Education

“On-job” components of Vocational Education.

Research on how people learn in the workplace demonstrates that what is taking place is constructivist or situated learning. In reality through cognitive apprenticeship. (Karker 1998) Studies of apprentices in several trades showed that what helped students learn the most especially with ill-defined, complex or risky situations was having someone model how to understand and deal with the situations.

Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) studied how hospital workers “learn the ropes”.  It showed that learning was concurrent with the doing.  With students reflecting on their actions – the doing – in order to interpret and construct the knowledge that they require.

The philosophy of “on-job” training according to Billet (1994b) concludes that in the informal learning setting of the workplace, effective learning comes from learners’ engagement in authentic activities guided by experts – A master plumber, or a master builder, or an A grade mechanic – and interacting with other learners.  So although construction of understanding is unique to each individual it is heavily influenced by the workplace culture of practice.  For example in a plumbing setting the individual apprentice will learn “hand skills” but these are heavily influenced by the particular workplace culture.  If the workplace places emphasis on risk mitigation – occupation Health and Safety – cleanliness and tidiness – Public Health and ensuring the technical specifications as determined by the manufacture carefully interpreted, then those values will be incorporated into the students learning.

New Zealand trainers have found that “On-job” apprentices value direct instruction especially for information that they were unlikely to learn without it being made explicit.  However, the quality of instruction is important to them.  They want it to help them understand why things have to be done and they want it to be at their level, not “talking down to them” (Billet 1994b).

 “On-job” training has the advantage of ensuring that activity ( repeated actions is a key factor in the apprentices’ knowledge construction) and participation in everyday work activities “forces” learners to access higher order procedural and propositional knowledge.  By ensuring actions are repeated in real workplaces it ensures that this experience adds to the apprentices’ index of knowledge, and active encouragement in active problem solving reinforces learning.  In this type of learning – constructivist or situated learning, reinforcement is the internal satisfaction that comes from understanding new activities i.e. the apprentice is able to adapt existing knowledge structures to the new task and build on that knowledge to shape a greater more complex understanding.

To summarise the “on-job” workplace component of apprenticeship training it can be seen that it has a  number of strengths as a learning environment (Billet 1996):

Billet (1996) acknowledges that there are also limitations to workplace settings.

1.                   Apprentices may construct inappropriate knowledge, especially if the “expert” does not engage appropriately with the apprentice or teaches inaccurate methods or “out of date” practices, especially in relation to legislative requirements.

2.                   Covert inappropriate knowledge may also be constructed and interspersed with appropriate learning (e.g. racist or sexist attitudes, unsafe workplaces).

3.                   Lack of sufficient or more challenging authentic activities i.e. an employer may be very specialised and only allow the apprentice experience in a narrow range of the required activities for a qualification . a plumber may not lay very many drains but only install hat water cylinders.

4.                   Reluctance of experts to participate or restrictions on their assistance – these are often related to employees’ sheer lack of sufficient time to spend with apprentices and economic pressures to push apprentices to carry out work that they may have not had sufficient experience in to really construct their knowledge base.

“Off-job” Training

“Off-job” training is completed in an accredited learning institution.  This is a mix of classroom theory based learning and workshop practical learning to consolidate the “on-job” learning, to correct any inappropriate learning and to ensure all experiential activities are covered off by the apprentice.

“Off-job” training aims for apprentices to cover off “required underpinning theoretical knowledge”.  This is usually done in a classroom with a tutorial/lecturing teaching practice, the most effective being when the class is less than 20.

This theory is followed up with practical classes featuring demonstrations and experiential activity in a “work shop” situation.  The aim is for apprentices to organise information and relate it to their existing knowledge.  Either adding to it or correcting their body of knowledge.

Barriers to learning on “off job”

Barriers on block courses relate to time constraints, administrative procedures, community pressures (accountability demands, standardized testing) (Parrell 1996).

However, the biggest block for effective use of time and tutorial expertise is the lack of preparation by apprentices for the block course.

Apprentices when they sign their apprenticeship contract, sign up to being responsible for learning and undertaking the study required to be done in their own time.

Or they may have needed to have had a wider experience than their employer had been able to give them i.e. A Block course may be covering five specific learning activities – of the 20 apprentice only 5 may have already experienced all those five activities, the other 15 a mixture of them.  Also, only about 10 of the 20 may have completed the Distance Learning Material required of them.  Hence the tutor of the block course has to take 2 or 3 of the 10 days allocated to bring all students up to the required standard before they can start on the learning activities required for the “block course”.

These barriers to effective learning can be mitigated by employers ensuring their apprentice has completed the Distance Learning Material and only signing it off after checking appropriate knowledge.

Another way around the barrier of insufficient skill experience is by viewing the apprenticeship required skills and learning activities holistically by the industry rather than just the employer. Hence the apprentice may be placed in three or four workplaces throughout their apprenticeship training to ensure appropriate exposure and knowledge acquisition is obtained over the whole range of required knowledge.

Apprentices can then build up their “signed off” portfolio of applied work  through a variety of workplace situations.

Summary

The New Zealand Vocation Education in summary is based around a National Qualifications framework – the Register which is in the main controlled by ITO’s who represent industry needs for their particular workforce. They formulate National Certificates and National Diplomas based on a unit standard curriculum which utilises competency based assessment.  The delivery methodology includes a mixture of “on-job” and “off-job” experiential/constructivist pedology and is quality assured by an independent natural body – the NZQA.

In New Zealand vocational education has over the past 8 years received increased levels of state investment on the understanding that VET is an important way to improve a nation’s economic performance (Strathdee 2003).

The introduction of the “Modern Apprenticeship Scheme”, and the Gateway Programme, which is designed to facilitate school and business institutions are aimed at “Growing an Innovative New Zealand Framework” latterly called the Innovation Framework which is part of a broader reform agenda designed to transform New Zealand’s economy by “growing more talent”.  Underpinning the Innovations Framework is the view that those displaced by globalisation, the individual, new technology and free-market reforms were not benefiting from any associated economic prosperity.  In order for them to do so increased numbers of tertiary places were made available. It was seen as an important investment in human capital to increase the trainees in vocational education. In this way New Zealand could rapidly up skill itself to provide the necessary skills it requires to participate in a growing technical global economy.

Flora Gilkison

Dean of Faculty Business and Technology

Waikato Institute of Technology