Vocational Education in New Zealand

新西兰的职业教育

　　Historical Perspective

　　Over 100 years ago recognition was given to the fact that New Zealanders needed more than the theory of academia, as provided by the University of New Zealand, they also needed the practicality of technical training and education. From this era came the revised Manual and Technical Institution Act of 1900, providing the opportunity to plant the roots of polytechnic and institute of technology vocational training in New Zealand.

　　100多年以前新西兰人就已经意识到与诸多大学所提供的学术理论教育相比，技术培训和职业教育更为重要。

　　Overview of the New Zealand Education System

　　新西兰教育体系综述

　　An overview of New Zealand (or Aotearoa, the Maori name for New Zealand – meaning land of the long white cloud) is situated in the South Pacific Ocean 2,000 kilometres South-East of Australia. It has a total land area of 269,000 square kilometres (3/4 the size of Japan). The capital is Wellington and the largest city is Auckland. The population is 4 million, with 4/5 of European ethnicity, 1 in 7 Maori (the tangata whenua or indigenous people), 1 in 15 Asian and 1 in 16 of Pacific Island origin. New Zealand is an increasingly multicultural society.

　　新西兰在毛利语中有“白云之乡“的美称，她位于南太平洋与同在南半球的澳大利亚相隔2000公里。地域面积约为269，000平方公里（相当于日本国土面积的3/4）。首都是惠灵顿，奥克兰是全国最大的城市。新西兰约有4百万人口，其中4/5为欧洲后裔，1/7为毛利人，亚洲人约占1/15，其他太平洋岛国人口约占1/16。 新西兰已经逐渐成为多元文化交融的国家。

　　Introduction

　　简介

　　Education is increasingly international in character driven by trends which include the Information Communications Technology revolution, employment markets transcending national borders and a geographically mobile population of students, teaching staff and researchers.

　　In this fast-changing environment, policy-makers, teachers, students and employers in all countries need access to relevant and up-to-date information about each other’s education and qualification systems.

　　在通讯技术的变革，逐渐消除国家界限的雇佣市场和地域流动性越来越大的学生，教师和研究人员等多方面力量的推动下，教育变得越来越国际化。

　　许多决策者，教职员工和学生都必须了解和不断更新对其他国家教育体系的了解，以适应不断发展变化的环境。

　　Central Agencies and Providers – A Devolved System

　　中央机构和 – 完善的管理体系

　　New Zealand education has moved from a centralised structure to one in which individual schools and tertiary institutions have considerable responsibility for their own governance and management, working within the framework of guidelines, requirements and funding arrangements set by central government and administered through its agencies.

　　新西兰教育体制已经由从前的中央集权的管理模式转变为由学校和高等教育学院各负其责进行管理，但是必须遵守由中央政府和其下属机构所设立的法律法规及基金分配等诸项要求。

　　The Ministry of Education, established under the Education Act 1989 carries out the following function:

　　· Provides education policy advice to the Minister of Education and the Government;

　　· Allocates funding to schools and early childhood providers;

　　· Oversees the implemtation of approved education policies;

　　· Collects and processes education statistics and information;

　　· Monitors the effectiveness of the education supplier as a whole.

　　根据1989年教育法案要求而建立的教育部主要承担以下职责：

　　· 为教育部长和政府提供教育政策建议和咨询

　　· 为学校和幼儿教育机构合理分配基金

　　· 保障教育政策在海外的实施

　　· 收集汇总教育领域的相关信息

　　· 监管整体教育工作开展的效力

　　Separate education agencies have national responsibilities for qualifications and quality assurance.

　　各个教育代理机构在全国范围内对教育质量和学历文凭进行质量监控。

　　Administrative authority for most education service provision is devolved away from central government to the educational institutions which are governed (in the public sector) by individual boards (schools) or councils (ITP’s), members of which are elected or appointed.

　　绝大部分提供教育服务的管辖权已经从中央政府移交给各教育院校，这些院校通常受校董会，理事会（行业培训组织的）或者通过选举或者任命推选出得成员的管理。

　　The Tertiary Education Commissions’ (TEC) key role is to oversee the implementation of the Tertiary Education strategy and associated set of priorities.

　　高等教育委员会的职责是监管高等教育政策及举措在海外的实施工作。

　　TEC takes an active role in facilitating collaboration and cooperation in the tertiary education system and a greater system connectedness to wider New Zealand businesses, communities, iwi (tribes) and enterprises is emerging.

　　新西兰高教委在促进高等教育与商业，社区，种族以及企业之间的沟通和合作方面一直扮演着非常积极的角色。

　　It is also responsible for funding all post-compulsory education and training offered by universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, wananga (public tertiary institutions that provide programmes with an emphasis on Maori tradition and customs), private training establishments, foundation education agencies, industry training organisations and adult and community education providers.

　　新西兰的大学，技术学院，教育学院，毛利传统教育学院，私立培训机构，教育基金，行业培训组织和成人及社区教育机构为社会提供义务教育之后的各项教育服务，高教委也必须对此类教育教学工作给予扶持。

　　Education in New Zealand

　　新西兰的教育

　　The New Zealand Education System is based on several guiding principles including; culturally appropriate early childhood services; primary and secondary education that is free for New Zealand citizens and permanent residents, equitable and affordable access to tertiary education and quality assured and portable education qualifications.

　　新西兰的教育体系建立在以下几个主要监管原则的基础上，它们包括：文化包容性强的幼儿早期教育，给予新西兰公民和永久居民的免费初级和中级义务教育，平等的高等教育机会以及高质量的学历文凭。

　　The provision of flexible pathways for study is also an important feature – for example students are not streamed or channelled through particular types of school from which future study options are determined.

　　灵活实用的学习途径也是新西兰教育的一个重要特点，例如学生可以以专业兴趣为出发点选择适合的桥梁课程为正式专业学习打基础，这样的学习方式可以保证学生不被分流。

　　Although there is diversity in the forms of institutions through which education is provided, national policies and quality assurance provide continuity and consistency across the system.

　　尽管根据所提供的教育类型，教育机构往往在形式上呈现多元化，但是国家的教育政策和对教育质量的监管保证了整个教育的高水平和延续性。

　　Early Childhood Education

　　早期幼儿教育

　　A wide range of services is provided which care for young children and infants from birth to 6 years of age.

　　新西兰为从出生到6岁的儿童提供广泛的教育和养护服务。

　　Primary and Secondary School Education

　　初级和中级教育

　　Schooling is available to children from age 5 and is compulsory from ages 6 to 16. In 2004 average teacher student classroom ratios ranged from 1:19 to 1:24.

　　The New Zealand School year usually runs from the end of January to mid-December and is divided into 4 terms. Both single sex and co-educational schooling options are available and state (public) schools are secular.

　　在新西兰孩子5岁之后就可以进入学校接受教育，6岁到16岁是法定接受义务教育的年龄。2004年的统计表明教师，学生和教室的平均比率是1：19 到1：24。从1月底到12月中旬被分成四个学期。另外学生和家长可以根据自己的意愿选择单一性别的学校（男校或者女校）也可以选择男女混校。

　　Most schools are English language medium, but some schools teach in the Maori medium.

　　绝大部分学校采用英语授课，个别学校也会采用毛利语教学。

　　Tertiary Education

　　高等教育

　　The term ‘tertiary education’ in New Zealand is used to describe all aspects of post-school education and training. There are currently 36 public tertiary education institutions, including 8 universities, 21 ITPs and 4 colleges of education, three wananga (Maori tertiary education institutions). There are also 46 industry training organisations and approximately 895 private training establishments which include private English language schools registered by the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.

　　“高等教育”在新西兰通常含盖高级别学校教育和培训的各个方面。目前全国有36所公里高校，其中8所大学，21所行业技术学院，4所教育学院以及3所毛利高等教育机构。另外还有46所行业培训机构和大约895所私立培训教育机构在新西兰学历评审委员会注册的许多私立语言学校。

　　Tertiary education providers meet the needs of learners of all ages, ethnicities, abilities and educational backgrounds. They offer courses at widely different levels from transition programmes to post graduate study and research. There are no fixed divisions between the types of courses offered by each classification of provider. The key focus is on their ability to offer programmes to the required quality standards, rather than on their organisation type.

　　高等教育机构必须要满足所有年龄，种族，能力和教育背景的求学者的学习需要。学校要求提供从桥梁课程到研究生教育和课题研究等各种级别的课程，但是在课程种类的划分上各个学校可以根据实际情况自行定度，关键是要对学生因材施教，并保证教育的质量。

　　Technical and Vocational Education is mainly offered at institutes of technology, polytechnics, private training establishments and in the workplace. However, some programmes are also available in secondary schools, wananga government establishments, one college of education and several universities.

　　新西兰的理工学院，技术学院，私立的培训机构以及实习基地是技术和职业教育的主要提供者。此外有些课程也在中学，毛利学校，一所教育学院及几所大学内教授。

　　Vocational Education can be delivered through a variety of ‘delivery practices’.

　　职业教育可以通过实践将知识和技能传授给学生

　　ITP’s may develop their own Certificates or Diplomas and deliver these either purely “off job” through theory “classroom” delivery and “workshop” learning. Or a mixture of cadetship placement whereby an industry group agree to provide “on-job” learning and experiential activities in line with the curriculum document for specific periods of time, eg 6 month placements. These apprentices are paid which reduces the financial impact of apprenticeship training on the student.

　　行业技术学院通常采用全脱产和学习实践相结合的方式把理论知识和行业技能传授给学生，并在毕业后获得相应的技术学历证书和专科文凭。或者根据具体行业的要求可以进行在职的培训或一定时期的在职学习或实验性活动比如6个月的培训课程。这样的学徒培训

　　The other main option, encouraged by Government and by legislative decree is through the Industry Training Organisations of which there are over 46. Agricultural ITO, Plumbing & Gas ITO, Electrical Supply ITO, Building Construction ITO and Motor Industry ITO.

　　除了上述的学校和培训机构之外，政府和各项法规还鼓励学生选择到各行业培训组织去接受职业教育培训。比如，农业培训组织，管道工和煤气工培训组织，电工培训组织，建筑行业培训组织和汽摩维修行业组织等。

　　These ITO’s are bodies that represent particular industry sectors. ITO’s develop and maintain national unit (skill) standards and qualifications for their sector. They also facilitate “on-job” training and courses. Workplace assessors are employed to confirm competence in the apprentices “on-job” work skills and under-pinning knowledge. The employer also has obligations to be the workplace assessor as well.

　　这些行业培训组织是各个行业的关键组成，他们发展和维持着国家级技术标准和资格，其本身也提供一系列的在职培训课程。培训中实习车间主管有资格评定学徒的在职培训技能和业务知识是否合格。雇主同样也有资格对这些培训作出评判。

　　How Qualifications are Maintained in New Zealand

　　Within New Zealand education formal qualifications are offered from Year 11 (age 15) in the school system and from certificate to doctorate level in the tertiary system.

　　新西兰教育体系中正式的学历文凭是从11年级（15岁的学生）开始算起，高等教育提供从学历证书到博士学位不同级别的学历。

　　Vocational Education is mainly represented in the Certificate level i.e. National Certificate in Electrical Supply, although there is now a growing trend to offer Diploma level qualifications in recognition of the increasingly complex nature of industry trade workers. Technical competence rather than purely hand-skills is becoming an increasing part of the ‘job’ and hence industry is requesting a greater depth of technical competence in its employees. Diplomas in Engineering – Mechanical and Civil are leading the way.

　　由于对行业技术工人综合素质的要求逐渐提高，越来越多的学校在技术教育和培训领域也提供的专科文凭，但是目前还是以证书课程为主，比如电力供应国家级证书。现代技术工作中要求的技术已经不再是单纯的手工技能，而是更加趋向于各项能力的完备性和科学性。工程学专科文凭 – 机械与土木工程就是由此应运而生的课程。

　　The Built Environment – architectural draughting, and quantity surveying are also demanding of this higher level of understanding and learning.

　　建筑环境学中的建筑通风，质量监理等学科就需要很高的学习和理解能力。

　　New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) maintains an overview of qualifications in school and tertiary education and training. NZQA has developed the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (the ‘Register’) established to provide a means to clearly identify all quality assured qualifications in New Zealand. The Register has ten levels and is composed of qualifications that are registered in accordance with an agreed set of title definitions. It provides a comprehensive list of all quality assured qualifications and benchmarking of New Zealand qualifications by describing what Level they are at on the Register. The Register is available on the internet at www.NZQA.govt.nz.

　　新西兰学历评审委员会（简称NZQA）负责评估管理各级学校和高等教育及培训机构所颁发的各种学历证书。NZQA设立了学历质量认可的注册机制，为全新西兰各种院校所提供的学历提供了一个明确的质量评审标准。一共设有10个的学历质量认可等级，并对每个等级的认证给予了明确的定义和解释。NZQA还为所有有质量保证的学历文凭和教育质量标准建立了一个完整的档案表，详情请见：www.NZQA.govt.nz 。

　　Quality Assurance of Tertiary Education

　　保证质量的高等教育

　　Quality Assurance of tertiary education in New Zealand focuses on the quality of teaching outcomes recognised through qualifications as a whole, and also on the systems and processes that support quality deliveries by providers.

　　新西兰高等教育质量保证主要侧重在整体的教学质量和各种保障质量教学的体系和服务。

　　Only those tertiary qualifications and providers that are quality assured by a quality approval body are eligible for Government financial assistance. Quality assurance bodies decide whether providers and qualification developers meet appropriate standards.

　　只有那些质量有所保证并得到相关认证的高等学历和高等院校才有资格享受政府的财政支持。学历的质量达标与否取决于院校和文凭是否符合一系列标准。

　　NZQA also accredits industry training organisations to register workplace assessors.

　　NZQA同时也授权行业培训组织为实习车间主管进行登记注册。

　　A New Zealand Quality assured qualification is according to the NZQA web-site:

　　Ø a formally recognised award for educational or training attainment, where formal recognition means that the qualification is approved by a legislatively approved body. For vocational training this body is the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.

　　根据NZQA网站，新西兰学历质量认可：

　　Ø 对于教育和培训水平的正式认证意为其学历文凭需经过法定的评估组织所认证。对于职业教育而言这个评估组织就是新西兰学历评审委员会

　　In general, a qualification is defined as requiring full-time equivalent study of three months or greater (40 credits). Study time is an estimate of the typical time it takes a learner to achieve the learning outcomes of the qualification. This includes direct contact time with teachers as trainers, as well as time spent in self study, assignments and assessments.

　　通常，一个完整的文凭要求全日制学习最少三个月以上，即相当于40个学分的课程。学习的时间是一个最基本的评估标准，学生必须要花费一定的时间才能够真正学习和领会文凭课程中所教授的内容，具体包括与老师之间的沟通互动，自习，作业和论文等。

　　All qualifications – school and post-school qualifications must be assigned to one of the 10 levels of the New Zealand Register of Quality Assured Qualifications (New Zealand Register).

　　新西兰所有院校提供的学历文凭必须是在NZQA设立的10个学历质量认可等级中注册的。

　　Classification Criteria

　　级别标准

　　The Register criteria set minimum credit and level requirements for each type of qualification. It is possible for a qualification to include credit achieved at levels above and below the level of which the qualification is awarded.

　　在学历评估注册标准中规定了每种学历中学分和级别的最低要求。

　　Level 1 to 4 Certificate level

　　Level 5 to 6 Diploma – Graduate Certificate

　　Level 7 Degrees – Bachelor

　　Level 8 Postgraduate Diplomas, Bachelor (Hons)

　　Level 9 Masters Degrees

　　Level 10 Doctorate Degree.

　　1级到4级 为证书级别

　　5级到6级 为专科文凭 – 高级证书级别

　　7级 为学士学位级别

　　8级 为研究生文凭 或者 荣誉学士 级别

　　9级 为硕士学位级别

　　10级 为博士学位级别

　　Vocational Education in New Zealand involves Certificates and diplomas

　　Pre-Trade Training Level 1 to 2

　　Certificates Level 3 and Level 4

　　Diplomas Level 5 and Level 6

　　职业教育在新西兰一般提供证书和专科文凭两种课程，

　　岗前培训 （就业前培训） 1级到2级

　　证书文凭 3级到4级

　　专科文凭 5级到6级

　　Vocational Education in New Zealand refers to:

　　新西兰职业教育涉及面

　　The New Zealand Standard of Classification of Occupations 1999 refers to a Major Group – Trades Workers.

　　新西兰职业分类法案（1999）设计了一个主要的群体-- 产业技术工人。

　　This major group classifies those occupations in which the main tasks include the construction and finishing of buildings, the repairing and servicing of electrical, electronic and mechanical machinery, the making or precision instruments, painting and other trades work.

　　这个群体包括那些服务于建筑，电器维修和保养，电子机械设备，精密仪器制造，喷漆等等技术产业的工人。

　　Each major group contains sub-groups:

　　每个组群里面还有细分：

　　e.g.

　　Building Trades workers includes:

　　· Building frame and related trades workers

　　· Bricklayers

　　· Stone masons

　　· Carpenter and/or joiner

　　· Builder (including contractor)

　　· Boat Builder

　　比如：

　　建筑行业的工人具体包括：

　　Ÿ 房屋外型建造和相关行业工人

　　Ÿ 砖瓦工

　　Ÿ 石匠

　　Ÿ 木匠和精细木工

　　Ÿ 建筑商（包括承包商）

　　Ÿ 造船工人

　　Related to this group is the Building Finishers and related trades workers:

　　· Plasterers

　　· Glazier

　　· Plumber

　　· Gas Fitter

　　· Painter, Decorator and/or Paperhanger

　　· Spray painter

　　· Sign writer.

　　与此行业群体相关的是建筑整修工和其他：

　　· 泥水匠（石膏师）

　　· 玻璃工人

　　· 煤气工

　　· 油漆工，装修工和裱糊工人

　　· 喷漆工

　　·

　　A further sub-group is Electrician:

　　· Electricians

　　· Transport Electrician

　　· Appliance Electrician.

　　更加细分出的群体是电工：

　　· 电工

　　· 交运电工

　　· 电器电工

　　The second Major Group under Trades is Metal and Machinery Trades workers:

　　· Metal Mould Maker

　　· Coach Builder

　　· Sheet Metal Worker

　　· Boiler Maker

　　· Fitter & Welder

　　· Panel Beater.

　　工程技术下分的第二个主要群体是金属和机械工种的工人：

　　· 金属模具制造工人

　　· 建筑指导

　　· 金属片制造工

　　· 锅炉制造工

　　· 焊工

　　· 板金工

　　A further sub-group relates to Blacksmith and Toolmakers:

　　· Blacksmith

　　· Pattern Maker

　　· Tool and/or Die Maker

　　· Fitter and Turner

　　· Saw Doctor

　　· Machinery Mechanic

　　· Motor Mechanic

　　· Aircraft Engine Mechanic

　　· Heating Ventilation and Refrigeration Mechanic

　　· Small Engine Mechanic

　　· Mechanical Products Inspector and Tester.

　　与铁匠和模具制造工人密切相关的组群是：

　　· 铁匠

　　· 模具工

　　· 金属印模制造工

　　· FITTER AND TURNER

　　· 磨锯工

　　· 机工

　　· 摩托技师

　　· 飞行器工程技师

　　· 热通风及制冷技师

　　· 小型发动机机师

　　· 机械产品检测人员

　　Another sub-group relates to Electrical and Electronic Instrument Mechanics and Fitters:

　　· Electrical Fitter

　　· Fire Alarm Technician

　　· Electronics Service

　　· Avionics Mechanic

　　· Radio and Television Repairer.

　　另外一个与电子电气机械设备安装维修和调试工作相关的工种群体是：

　　· 电气。。。

　　· 失火报警器技工

　　· 电器维修

　　· 航空电子设备技师

　　· 电台电视维修师

　　Sub-group Precision Instrument Makers and Related Workers:

　　· Industrial Precision Instrument Maker and Repairer

　　精密仪器制造的相关工种：

　　· 工业精密一起制造和维修

　　The Waikato Institute of Technology (Wintec) under its School of Trades, Construction and Engineering offers a wide range of the above training, as well as horticulture, agriculture, floristry, hospitality and catering, health and beauty and hairdressing.

　　Wintec下设的技术学院提供几乎全部上述课程，另外还有园艺，农业，花卉，酒店管理与服务，健康和美容美发等其他专业学科。

　　The main pedagogical method of Vocational Education in New Zealand is Competency-Based Education and Training.

　　新西兰职业教育的教学方法主要以注重培养学生工作能力为宗旨

　　Competency based training was made popular (Kirka 1998) in the US in the 70s through the performance based vocational teacher education involvement. The National Vocational Qualification NVQs system in England and Wales (1986) and the New Zealand National Qualifications Framework are examples of nationwide adoption of competency based standards. In New Zealand the adoption of competency based standards as a means of assessment were advanced by a strong political impetus. This competency assessment approach is believed to be the way to prepare a workforce to participate successfully in a competitive global economy.

　　上个世纪70年代，美国的职业教育就强调以实践技能为教育基础，要求从事职业培训教育的老师通过自己的言传身教将实际工作技能传授给学生。在英格兰和威尔士（1986）以及新西兰也采用国家职业教育学历评估体系为能力培养为基础的职业教育设立了国家级的审核标准。 在新西兰强大的政治推动力推进了这一标准的发展。注重能力培养，并以此为审核评估职业教育质量的方式被认为是培养能成功适应全球经济竞争的劳动力大军的可行之路。

　　Competency Based Education Training is seen as a way to improve the relationship between education/training and workplace requirements. It is individualised emphasises outcomes (i.e. what individuals can and can’t do) and allows flexible pathways for achieving the outcomes. It is designed to make it as clear as possible what is required to be achieved and what standard is to be used to measure achievement i.e. competence. The student is assessed as competent or not yet competent rather than the behaviouralistic method of achievement of pass or fail. Chappell (1996) champions this method as he sees it as overcoming the divide between hands and minds, between theory and practice, and vocational and general education.

　　侧重技能培训的技术教育也可以很好的提升职业教育和劳动力市场需求之间的关系。灵活实用的学习方式和途径让教育产生的成果更加个性化，这样的方式让劳动力市场的就业需求更加明确，即注重工作中的实际操作能力。评估学生的学习情况主要看能否胜任实际工作，而不是单单采用考试能否通过这样的标准。 Chappell(1996) 非常拥护这样的教学和评估方式，因为这样的方式克服了脑力劳动和体力劳工完全分离的弊端，改善了教育中理论和实践脱节的问题，消除了职业教育低于一般教育的理解误区。

　　Does a Competency Based Education Training for Vocational Education give Employers what they want?

　　注重能力培养的职业教育和培训能够真正及雇主之所需吗？

　　In order for Competency Based standards to meet the curriculum requirements of industry depends on the credibility the standards have for industry. Thus it is imperative for their acceptability that they do represent the industry requirements. In New Zealand the answer to this has been the establishment of Industry Training Organisations ITOs who are in fact the standards-setting bodies and should be employer led.

　　基于行业标准的可靠性，能力为基础的职业教育培养的评估标准才能达到行业对于劳动力的要求，因为产业对于劳工力的可接受性很关键，因为他们体现了行业对工人的需求标准。新西兰的行业培训组织（ITOs）就此设立了一系列被行业广泛承认和应用的劳动力接受（适用性）标准。

　　Competency Based Education Training whilst adopted in New Zealand and fast becoming the accepted method for assessment has both its proponents and its opponents. Proponents claim that Competency Based Education Training allows for a learning society where education is an empowering tool for economic independence. Opponents (Ecclestone 1997) claim that knowledge is too narrowly defined in terms of employer needs, and rather than being a framework, the competency steps are merely a prescription through which educational funding is channelled, by which tutors are benchmarked and assessed, and it ultimately decides how workers progression and pay are determined. (Hodkinson and Issit 1995; MulCathy 1996).

　　当然对于这样以注重能力和技能培养为本的教学评估方式也是有人支持有人反对。有些人认为能力为本的职业教育可以让教育变成推动经济独立与发展的有效工具。反对的人（Ecclestone, 1997）则认为这样以来知识就从某种意义上讲狭隘的变成了只为满足雇主要求而产生的东西，而不是一个宏观上的概念。所谓能力培养也不过是教育基金通过

　　However, for the New Zealand situation Competency Based Education Training clearly assists vocational education in that it allows for a mixture of “on-job” training coupled with practical standard based assessment and “off-job” theoretical education undertaken to reinforce or explain the required theoretical knowledge necessary for students/apprentices, through which they can engage in an increasingly and technological, global workplace.

　　然而就目前新西兰的现状来看，能力为本的教育和培养方针很明确的指导着职业教育和培训 ，它采用有实践标准为评估基础的在职培训和理论与实践相结合的脱产学习两种方式的结合来培养适应服务于现代化，全球化的技术行业的劳动者。

　　Workplace Learning and Vocational Education

　　车间实习和职业教育

　　“On-job” components of Vocational Education.

　　职业教育的在职培训部分

　　Research on how people learn in the workplace demonstrates that what is taking place is constructivist or situated learning. In reality through cognitive apprenticeship. (Karker 1998) Studies of apprentices in several trades showed that what helped students learn the most especially with ill-defined, complex or risky situations was having someone model how to understand and deal with the situations.

　　通过在几个工程技术领域里对学徒的研究表明实习可以帮助他们在混乱，复杂甚至有些危险因素的环境中完善知识和技能，并提升他们理解和处理各种问题的能力。

　　Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) studied how hospital workers “learn the ropes”. It showed that learning was concurrent with the doing. With students reflecting on their actions – the doing – in order to interpret and construct the knowledge that they require.

　　Hart-Landresberg Brainger and Reder (1992) 致力于研究医务工作者如何学习捆绑。研究显示学与做应当是并行的，实际操作可以更好的帮助学习者完善和矫正自己的理论知识。

　　The philosophy of “on-job” training according to Billet (1994b) concludes that in the informal learning setting of the workplace, effective learning comes from learners’ engagement in authentic activities guided by experts – A master plumber, or a master builder, or an A grade mechanic – and interacting with other learners. So although construction of understanding is unique to each individual it is heavily influenced by the workplace culture of practice. For example in a plumbing setting the individual apprentice will learn “hand skills” but these are heavily influenced by the particular workplace culture. If the workplace places emphasis on risk mitigation – occupation Health and Safety – cleanliness and tidiness – Public Health and ensuring the technical specifications as determined by the manufacture carefully interpreted, then those values will be incorporated into the students learning.

　　根据Billet (1994b)的结论，在职培训是一种非正式的学习过程，有效的学习是在专业人员的技术指导之下进行实践操作，并与其他学习者进行交流和互动。因此对每一个学习者对知识和工作的理解是深受整个实习操作车间的文化氛围影响的。例如，在管道铺设车间，每一个学徒都将学习一些“手工技术”，如果整个实习车间比较注重工作中危险因素的防范 – 职业健康和安全 – 工作环境的清洁整齐 – 公共健康以及仔细阅读产品说明书并在工作过程中严格达到技术要求，那么这些有价值的理念就会被灌输到学徒将来的工作中。

　　New Zealand trainers have found that “On-job” apprentices value direct instruction especially for information that they were unlikely to learn without it being made explicit. However, the quality of instruction is important to them. They want it to help them understand why things have to be done and they want it to be at their level, not “talking down to them” (Billet 1994b).

　　新西兰的培训人员发现“在职”学徒重视那些工作须知和说明，尤其是那些不可能学到或者被明确教授过的信息。因此培训人员就需要帮助受训者理解这些内容，并重视这样的信息。

　　“On-job” training has the advantage of ensuring that activity ( repeated actions is a key factor in the apprentices’ knowledge construction) and participation in everyday work activities “forces” learners to access higher order procedural and propositional knowledge. By ensuring actions are repeated in real workplaces it ensures that this experience adds to the apprentices’ index of knowledge, and active encouragement in active problem solving reinforces learning. In this type of learning – constructivist or situated learning, reinforcement is the internal satisfaction that comes from understanding new activities i.e. the apprentice is able to adapt existing knowledge structures to the new task and build on that knowledge to shape a greater more complex understanding.

　　在职培训也有很多优势，受训工人重复一些操作对他们自身的知识构成帮助很大，而且在每天工作过程中感受工作的压力和强度有助于他们达到更高的工作水平。而且重复工作可以让受训工人把所学知识归纳成系统并加强处理问题的能力，从而进一步强化知识的掌握。在这样系统化的学习过程中学徒们可以持续学习实践并加强自己的能力，很多学徒就可以把现存知识运用到新的工作中，并进而理解和完善所学的知识。

　　To summarise the “on-job” workplace component of apprenticeship training it can be seen that it has a number of strengths as a learning environment (Billet 1996):

　　1. Authentic – real, goal-directed activities. Apprentices feel they are doing something;

　　2. Access to guidance. Two fold – both close assistance from experts and “distant” observing and listening to the other workers in the workplace and the way the physical environment is set out;

　　3. Everyday problem solving which adds to the apprentices index of knowledge; and

　　4. Intrinsic reinforcement.

　　总结学徒在职培训这种方式可以有以下几方面的优点：

　　1． 真正目标明确的活动。学徒能够身临其境的进行实践操作。

　　2． 可以在实践中接受行业专门培训人员的指导

　　3． 每一天都可以学习解决工作中出现的问题

　　4． 内在加强

　　Billet (1996) acknowledges that there are also limitations to workplace settings.

　　1. Apprentices may construct inappropriate knowledge, especially if the “expert” does not engage appropriately with the apprentice or teaches inaccurate methods or “out of date” practices, especially in relation to legislative requirements.

　　2. Covert inappropriate knowledge may also be constructed and interspersed with appropriate learning (e.g. racist or sexist attitudes, unsafe workplaces).

　　3. Lack of sufficient or more challenging authentic activities i.e. an employer may be very specialised and only allow the apprentice experience in a narrow range of the required activities for a qualification . a plumber may not lay very many drains but only install hat water cylinders.

　　4. Reluctance of experts to participate or restrictions on their assistance – these are often related to employees’ sheer lack of sufficient time to spend with apprentices and economic pressures to push apprentices to carry out work that they may have not had sufficient experience in to really construct their knowledge base.

　　同时这样的方式也有几方面的问题：

　　1． 学徒可能接受了一些不是很正确的知识，尤其当“专家”的指点不得当，或者老师们的过时落伍的工作及教学方式，尤其是一些与法律条文或要求相关的知识点上。

　　2． 由于种族主义，性别歧视，不安全的工作环境等因素引起的知识上的误导。

　　3． 缺乏有效或者更富挑战性的活动，比如雇主可能只强调学徒具有单一能力，管道工可能只被要求安装热水管而没有被要求铺设所有下水管道

　　4． 由于时间因素，或者经济压力等原因，学徒在有限的学习时间里没有得到充足的实践训练和知识结构的培养。

　　“Off-job” Training

　　脱产培训

　　“Off-job” training is completed in an accredited learning institution. This is a mix of classroom theory based learning and workshop practical learning to consolidate the “on-job” learning, to correct any inappropriate learning and to ensure all experiential activities are covered off by the apprentice.

　　“Off-job” training aims for apprentices to cover off “required underpinning theoretical knowledge”. This is usually done in a classroom with a tutorial/lecturing teaching practice, the most effective being when the class is less than 20.

　　This theory is followed up with practical classes featuring demonstrations and experiential activity in a “work shop” situation. The aim is for apprentices to organise information and relate it to their existing knowledge. Either adding to it or correcting their body of knowledge.

　　脱产培训是指在学的过程中完善技能的学习方式，它是课堂理论知识学习和车间实习相结合，同时她也很好的巩固了在职学习和培训的内容。

　　脱产培训旨在帮助学徒们在实际操作中更好的理解和运用所学的知识，这样的高效率辅导课和培训一般不超过20节，但是内容紧凑充实。

　　理论教育也被贯穿于实践之中，学生们会在实习车间和工作基地将理论运用于实际工作，这让作为学徒的受训者能够将理论与实践很好的结合起来，更好的在时间中不断总结创新。

　　Barriers to learning on “off job”

　　脱产培训面临的挑战

　　Barriers on block courses relate to time constraints, administrative procedures, community pressures (accountability demands, standardized testing) (Parrell 1996).

　　However, the biggest block for effective use of time and tutorial expertise is the lack of preparation by apprentices for the block course.

　　Apprentices when they sign their apprenticeship contract, sign up to being responsible for learning and undertaking the study required to be done in their own time.

　　Or they may have needed to have had a wider experience than their employer had been able to give them i.e. A Block course may be covering five specific learning activities – of the 20 apprentice only 5 may have already experienced all those five activities, the other 15 a mixture of them. Also, only about 10 of the 20 may have completed the Distance Learning Material required of them. Hence the tutor of the block course has to take 2 or 3 of the 10 days allocated to bring all students up to the required standard before they can start on the learning activities required for the “block course”.

　　These barriers to effective learning can be mitigated by employers ensuring their apprentice has completed the Distance Learning Material and only signing it off after checking appropriate knowledge.

　　Another way around the barrier of insufficient skill experience is by viewing the apprenticeship required skills and learning activities holistically by the industry rather than just the employer. Hence the apprentice may be placed in three or four workplaces throughout their apprenticeship training to ensure appropriate exposure and knowledge acquisition is obtained over the whole range of required knowledge.

　　Apprentices can then build up their “signed off” portfolio of applied work through a variety of workplace situations.

　　短期课程的开设涉及到时间约束，行政管理程序，社区需求的压力等（例如：会计人员的需求，工作水平基本标准的测试）（Parrell, 1996）

　　然而，不能更有效的安排时间和指导专家的障碍是学徒缺乏对短期课程的学习准备工作。

　　当学徒们签署了确定他们的学徒身份的合同书，他们在合同书中同意他们将有责任去学习各种工作经验，并且同意用他们的业余时间来学习雇主所要求的知识。.

　　或者他们也许需要掌握比雇主教授他们的更多的工作经验等等。一个短期课程也许包含了5个特殊的学习内容---20 名学徒中也许只有5名学徒已经体验过这种工作经验，而其他15名学徒只体验了其中的部分。又或者，他们当中的只有10名学徒已经完成他们工作所要求的远程教育的教材。因此，作为该短期课程的导师在开始教授“短期课程”之前不得不抽出2-3天的时间将所有的学员都达到所要求的基本标准水平。

　　如果雇主能保证他们的学徒已经完成了远程教育教材，并在能保证学徒已经具备了正确的知识后才签署合同，短期课程教育才可以避免以上类似的障碍。

　　另一个缺乏技术经验的障碍是学徒所需要的整体的技术和学习内容来自于整个行业而不是某个雇主。因此，学徒们在他们的学徒生涯期间将被派到3或4个工作环境中去接受培训， 以保证他们能准确掌握所要求的各种知识。

　　Summary

　　总结

　　The New Zealand Vocation Education in summary is based around a National Qualifications framework – the Register which is in the main controlled by ITO’s who represent industry needs for their particular workforce. They formulate National Certificates and National Diplomas based on a unit standard curriculum which utilises competency based assessment. The delivery methodology includes a mixture of “on-job” and “off-job” experiential/constructivist pedology and is quality assured by an independent natural body – the NZQA.

　　In New Zealand vocational education has over the past 8 years received increased levels of state investment on the understanding that VET is an important way to improve a nation’s economic performance (Strathdee 2003).

　　The introduction of the “Modern Apprenticeship Scheme”, and the Gateway Programme, which is designed to facilitate school and business institutions are aimed at “Growing an Innovative New Zealand Framework” latterly called the Innovation Framework which is part of a broader reform agenda designed to transform New Zealand’s economy by “growing more talent”. Underpinning the Innovations Framework is the view that those displaced by globalisation, the individual, new technology and free-market reforms were not benefiting from any associated economic prosperity. In order for them to do so increased numbers of tertiary places were made available. It was seen as an important investment in human capital to increase the trainees in vocational education. In this way New Zealand could rapidly up skill itself to provide the necessary skills it requires to participate in a growing technical global economy.

　　总而言之，新西兰职业技术教育基于一个国家级的学历证书的框架，--注册者将主要受ITO’s （国家行业培训委员会）的严格控制， ITO’s 代表了行业对特殊劳动力的需求，他们在标准单位课程的基础上制定了国家级证书和国家级文凭，这种标准单位课程运用了以能力为基础的评估方法。该证书的颁发包括了在职和脱产的学习经验，并且该证书受国家级机构NZQA新西兰国家学历评估委员会认可。

　　新西兰政府在过去8年里提高了对新西兰的职业技术教育的投资，因为国家已经意识到职业技术培训对整个国家的经济建设至关重要(Strathdee 2003)。

　　“现代学徒计划”的说明和入门课程是为了促进学校和商业学院为实现“发展一个创新的新西兰式的教育框架”的目标所设计的，该目标后来被称为创新框架，被作为更广泛的改革议程的一部分，发展更多地精英来更好的改变新西兰经济。

　　创新框架的提倡是因为那些被全球化，个人化，新科技和自由贸易所代替的改革并没有从相关的经济繁荣中受益。增加第三教育基地可以帮助实现这个目标。增加职业教育培训的学员被视为是一项重要的人力资源的投资。只有这样，新西兰才能迅速的提高自身的技术能力，以投身到一个迅速发展的全球性科技化的经济当中去。

　　Flora Gilkison

　　Dean of Faculty Business and Technology

　　Waikato Institute of Technology

　　2005